Type of electrical cell Alkaline batterySelf-discharge rate<0.3%/monthTime durability5–10 yearsNominal cell voltage 1.5 V

An alkaline battery (IEC code: L) is a type of primary battery where the electrolyte (most commonly potassium hydroxide) has a pH value above 7. Typically, these batteries derive energy from the reaction between zinc metal and manganese dioxide.

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Compared with zinc–carbon batteries of the Leclanché cell or zinc chloride types, alkaline batteries have a higher energy density and longer shelf life yet provide the same voltage.

The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide (KOH) instead of the acidic ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) or zinc chloride (ZnCl2) electrolyte of the zinc–carbon batteries. Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the electrodes.

As of , alkaline batteries accounted for 80% of manufactured batteries in the US and over 10 billion individual units produced worldwide. In Japan, alkaline batteries accounted for 46% of all primary battery sales. In Switzerland, alkaline batteries accounted for 68%, in the UK 60% and in the EU 47% of all battery sales including secondary types.[1][2][3][4][5]

Alkaline batteries contain zinc (Zn) and manganese dioxide (MnO2), which is a cumulative neurotoxin and can be toxic in higher concentrations. However, compared to other battery types, the toxicity of alkaline batteries is moderate.[6]

Alkaline batteries are used in many household items such as portable media players, digital cameras, toys, flashlights, and radios.

History

[edit] See also: History of the battery

Batteries with alkaline (rather than acid) electrolyte were first developed by Waldemar Jungner in , and, working independently, Thomas Edison in . The modern alkaline dry battery, using the zinc/manganese dioxide chemistry, was invented by the Canadian engineer Lewis Urry in the s in Canada before he started working for Union Carbide's Eveready Battery division in Cleveland, OH, building on earlier work by Edison.[7][8] On October 9, , Urry, Karl Kordesch, and P. A. Marsal filed US patent (2,960,558) for the alkaline battery. It was granted in and was assigned to the Union Carbide Corporation.[9]

When alkaline batteries were introduced in the late s, their zinc electrodes (in common with the then ubiquitous carbon-zinc cells) had a surface film of mercury amalgam. Its purpose was to control electrolytic action on impurities in the zinc; that unwanted electrolytic action would reduce shelf life and promote leakage. When reductions in mercury content were mandated by various legislatures, it became necessary to greatly improve the purity and consistency of the zinc.[10]

Chemistry

[edit]

In an alkaline battery, the negative electrode is zinc and the positive electrode is manganese dioxide (MnO2). The alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide (KOH) is not consumed during the reaction, as there are equal amounts of OH− anions consumed and produced in the two half-reactions occurring at the electrodes. Only zinc and MnO2 are consumed during discharge.

The two half-reactions are:

• Oxidation reaction occurring at the anode, which is negatively charged from accepting e− from the reductant in the cell:
  Zn(s) + 2OH−(aq) → Zn(OH)2(s) + 2e− → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− (E°ox = +1.28 V)
• Reduction reaction occurring at the cathode, which is positively charged from giving e− to the oxidizer in the cell:
  2MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2e− → 2MnO(OH)(s) + 2OH−(aq) [11]

The overall reaction (sum of the anodic and cathodic reactions) is:

Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) ↔ ZnO(s) + 2MnO(OH)(s) (E°cell = E°ox + E°red = nominally +1.5 V)

Capacity

[edit]

The capacity of an alkaline battery is strongly dependent on the load. An AA-sized alkaline battery might have an effective capacity of  mAh at low drain, but at a load of 1 ampere, which is common for digital cameras, the capacity could be as little as 700 mAh.[12] The voltage of the battery declines steadily during use, so the total usable capacity depends on the cutoff voltage of the application.

Voltage

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The nominal voltage of a fresh alkaline cell as established by manufacturer standards is 1.5 V. The actual zero-load voltage of a new alkaline battery ranges from 1.50 to 1.65 V, depending on the purity of the manganese dioxide used and the contents of zinc oxide in the electrolyte. The voltage delivered to a load decreases as the current drawn increases and as the cell discharges. A cell is considered fully discharged when the voltage drops to about 0.9 V.[13] Cells connected in series produce a voltage equal to the sum of the voltages of each cell (e.g., three cells generate about 4.5 V when new).

AA battery voltage vs capacity, at zero-load and 330 mW load[14] Capacity 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Zero-load 1.59 1.44 1.38 1.34 1.32 1.30 1.28 1.26 1.23 1.20 1.10 330 mW 1.49 1.35 1.27 1.20 1.16 1.12 1.10 1.08 1.04 0.98 0.62

Current

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The amount of electrical current an alkaline battery can deliver is roughly proportional to its physical size. This is a result of decreasing internal resistance as the internal surface area of the cell increases. A rule of thumb is that an AA alkaline battery can deliver 700 mA without any significant heating. Larger cells, such as C and D cells, can deliver more current. Applications requiring currents of several amperes such as powerful portable audio equipment require D-sized cells to handle the increased load.

In comparison, Lithium-ion and Ni-MH batteries can handle 2 amperes with ease on the standard AA size.[15]

Construction

[edit]

Alkaline batteries are manufactured in standard cylindrical forms interchangeable with zinc–carbon batteries, and in button forms. Several individual cells may be interconnected to form a true "battery", such as the 9-volt PP3-size battery.

A cylindrical cell is contained in a drawn stainless steel can, which is the cathode connection. The positive electrode mixture is a compressed paste of manganese dioxide with carbon powder added for increased conductivity. The paste may be pressed into the can or deposited as pre-molded rings. The hollow center of the cathode is lined with a separator, which prevents contact of the electrode materials and short-circuiting of the cell. The separator is made of a non-woven layer of cellulose or a synthetic polymer. The separator must conduct ions and remain stable in the highly alkaline electrolyte solution.[16]

The negative electrode is composed of a dispersion of zinc powder in a gel containing the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The zinc powder provides more surface area for chemical reactions to take place, compared to a metal can. This lowers the internal resistance of the cell. To prevent gassing of the cell at the end of its life, more manganese dioxide is used than required to react with all the zinc. Also, a plastic-made gasket is usually added to increase leakage resistance.[17]

The cell is then wrapped in aluminium foil, a plastic film, or rarely, cardboard, which acts as a final layer of leak protection as well as providing a surface on which logos and labels can be printed.[18]

When describing AAA, AA, C, sub-C and D size cells, the negative electrode is connected to the flat end, and the positive terminal is the end with the raised button. This is usually reversed in button cells, with the flat-ended cylindrical can being the positive terminal.

Recharging of alkaline batteries

[edit] Main article: Rechargeable alkaline battery

Some alkaline batteries are designed to be recharged a few times, and are described as rechargeable alkaline batteries. Attempts to recharge standard alkaline batteries may cause rupture, or the leaking of hazardous liquids that corrode the equipment. However, it is reported that standard alkaline batteries can often be recharged a few times (typically not more than ten), albeit with reduced capacity after each charge; chargers are available commercially. The UK consumer organisation Which? reported that it tested two such chargers with Energizer alkaline batteries, finding that battery capacity dropped on average to 10% of its original value, with huge variations, after two cycles (without stating how depleted they were before recharging) after recharging them two times.[19]

In Gautam G. Yadav published papers reporting that alkaline batteries made by interleaving the interlayers with copper ions could be recharged for over 6,000 cycles due to the theoretical second electron capacity of manganese dioxide.[20][21] The energy density of these rechargeable batteries with copper intercalated manganese dioxide is reported to be over 160 Wh/L, the best among the aqueous-based chemistries.[21] It could be capable of energy densities comparable to lithium-ion (at least 250 Wh/L) if zinc utilization in the batteries were improved.[20]

Leaks

[edit]

Alkaline batteries are prone to leaking potassium hydroxide, a caustic agent that can cause respiratory, eye and skin irritation.[note 1] The risk of this can be reduced by storing batteries in a dry place and at room temperature. Damage from leakage is mitigated by removing batteries when storing devices. Applying reverse current (such as by recharging disposable-grade cells, or by mixing batteries of different types or state of charge in the same device) can increase the risk of leakage.[citation needed]

All batteries gradually self-discharge (whether installed in a device or not) and dead batteries eventually leak. Extremely high temperatures can also cause batteries to rupture and leak (such as in a car during summer) as well as decrease the shelf life of the battery.

The reason for leaks is that as batteries discharge – either through usage or gradual self-discharge – the chemistry of the cells changes and some hydrogen gas is generated. This out-gassing increases pressure in the battery. Eventually, the excess pressure either ruptures the insulating seals at the end of the battery, or the outer metal canister, or both. In addition, as the battery ages, its steel outer canister may gradually corrode or rust, which can further contribute to containment failure.

Once a leak has formed due to corrosion of the outer steel shell, potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air to form a feathery crystalline structure of potassium carbonate that grows and spreads out from the battery over time, following along metal electrodes to circuit boards where it commences oxidation of copper tracks and other components, leading to permanent circuitry damage.

The leaking crystalline growths can also emerge from seams around battery covers to form a furry coating outside the device, that corrodes any objects in contact with the leaking device.

Disposal

[edit]

Since alkaline batteries were made with less mercury beginning in , alkaline batteries are allowed to be disposed of as regular domestic waste in some locations. However, older alkaline batteries with mercury, and the remaining other heavy metals and corrosive chemicals in all batteries (new and old), still present problems for disposal—especially in landfills.[22][23] There is also the issue of simplifying the disposal of batteries by excluding them all from domestic waste, so that the most toxic batteries are diverted from general waste streams.

Disposal varies by jurisdiction. For example, the state of California considers all batteries as hazardous waste when discarded, and has banned the disposal of batteries in domestic waste.[24] In Europe, battery disposal is controlled by the WEEE Directive and Battery Directive regulations, and as such alkaline batteries must not be thrown in with domestic waste. In the EU, most stores that sell batteries are required by law to accept old batteries for recycling.

Recycling

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The disposable battery market grows at a rate of 5.5% every year.[25] In the past [when?], used batteries ended up at landfill sites, but in , disposal of alkaline batteries at landfill sites was forbidden by an EU regulation.[26] In , the EU committed to recycling 45% of all batteries by .[27] In , a new regulation set a target of 63% by and 73% by .[28]

In the US, only one state, California, requires all alkaline batteries to be recycled. Vermont also has a statewide alkaline battery collection program.[29] In other US states, individuals can purchase battery recycling kits used to ship batteries to recyclers. Some stores such as IKEA also collect alkaline batteries for recycling. However, some chain stores that advertise battery recycling (such as Best Buy) accept rechargeable batteries only, and generally do not accept alkaline batteries.[30]

For recycling, the metals from crushed alkaline batteries are mechanically separated, and the waste black mass is treated chemically to separate zinc, manganese dioxide and potassium hydroxide.[31]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

• Linden, David III; Reddy, Thomas B., eds. (). Handbook of Batteries (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07--8.

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Overview of Alkaline Battery Advantages, Disadvantages, and Best Uses

This guide talks about alkaline batteries, the type of batteries you often use at home or at work. In this guide, you will learn how alkaline batteries work, what types you can buy, and why many choose them. It also explains the good and bad sides of using them, how to stay safe when using them, and how to make them last longer. You will also see how they compare to other battery types like lithium and rechargeable batteries, so you can choose what’s best for your needs.

Catalog

What are Alkaline Batteries?

Alkaline batteries are among the most common power sources for household and portable electronics. These are single-use, non-rechargeable batteries, also known as primary cells. Inside each battery is a zinc powder anode and a manganese dioxide cathode, with potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte. This electrolyte, which is alkaline rather than acidic, helps ions move quickly and improves both the battery’s power output and shelf life. When a device is turned on, electrons begin to flow. They move from the zinc anode (the negative end) through the device’s circuit and into the manganese dioxide cathode (the positive end). This steady electron flow is what powers the device.

These batteries are efficient at supplying a steady, moderate current over time. That’s why they’re often used in devices like remote controls, clocks, and toys. Compared to older battery types like the Leclanché cell, which use acidic electrolytes and have a shorter lifespan, alkaline batteries are longer-lasting and more stable. Each cell typically delivers 1.5 volts. Their design also resists leaks and provides strong sealing, which helps prevent damage to devices. As the chemicals inside are used up, the voltage slowly drops. Eventually, it falls below the level needed to keep a device running, and that’s when the battery needs replacing.

Different Types of Alkaline Batteries

Alkaline batteries come in various shapes and sizes to match different energy needs. Though the chemical process inside remains the same, each type is optimized for a specific purpose.

1. AA Batteries

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AA batteries are the most commonly used alkaline cells, thanks to their convenient size and well-balanced energy output. They offer a good compromise between physical dimensions and power capacity, making them suitable for a wide range of medium-drain devices. You’ll find AA batteries in everyday items like digital thermometers, wall clocks, wireless computer mice, handheld gaming devices, and radios. Their versatility makes them a staple in homes and workplaces alike.

Figure 2. AA Battery

2. AAA Batteries

AAA batteries are thinner and lighter than AA cells, providing a lower energy capacity but allowing for use in more compact devices. They are often found in remote controls, TV streaming remotes, digital voice recorders, electric toothbrushes, and some LED flashlights. While they don’t last as long under heavy use, their size makes them ideal for electronics where conserving space is a priority.

Figure 3. AAA Battery

3. C and D Batteries

C and D cells are much larger and capable of storing more energy, making them well-suited for high-drain or long-duration devices. C batteries are commonly used in medium-sized equipment like musical toys and some power tools, while D batteries are preferred for more demanding applications such as portable lanterns, large flashlights, boomboxes, and battery-powered fans. Their bulk may be a drawback in small devices, but they provide the endurance needed for sustained performance.

Figure 4. D Batteries

4. 9V Batteries

9V batteries deliver a higher voltage output than cylindrical cells and are recognizable by their rectangular shape with snap connectors. They’re frequently used in smoke detectors, gas leak sensors, wireless microphones, and certain types of medical equipment. These batteries are valued for their reliability and steady voltage, especially in emergency-use devices that required consistent performance.

Figure 5. 9V Battery

5. Button Cells and Specialty Sizes

In addition to the standard cylindrical and rectangular types, alkaline battery chemistry is also used in smaller formats like button cells (also called coin cells). These are commonly found in compact devices such as wristwatches, hearing aids, laser pointers, digital thermometers, and calculators. Alkaline button cells are prized for their small footprint and steady voltage over time.

Figure 6. Button Cells

Advantages of Alkaline Batteries

Long Shelf Life

One of the standout benefits of alkaline batteries is their exceptional shelf life. When stored at room temperature and in a dry environment, they lose only about 2–3% of their charge per year. This slow discharge rate allows them to remain functional and ready for use even after several years in storage. This feature makes them ideal for devices that are used infrequently or in emergencies, such as smoke detectors, flashlights, and weather radios. Furthermore, their tight seals and stable internal chemistry minimize the risk of leakage or corrosion over time, providing peace of mind during long-term storage.

High Energy Density

Alkaline batteries are known for their high energy density, which means they can store a substantial amount of power relative to their size. Compared to traditional zinc-carbon batteries, they often last nearly twice as long under similar usage conditions. This makes them effective for powering medium- to high-drain devices, including portable gaming consoles, handheld fans, and digital cameras. Alkaline batteries also handle intermittent surges in power demand such as the quick burst needed for a camera flash, without voltage drops, ensuring consistent performance.

Easy and Safe to Use

Another major advantage of alkaline batteries is their simplicity and safety. They require no special tools, handling procedures, or ventilation systems to use. Most modern alkaline batteries are sealed to prevent leaks and are manufactured without toxic heavy metals like mercury, which were common in older battery technologies. Their widespread acceptance means they can be carried during travel without any special packaging or regulations, adding to their convenience.

Consistent Performance

Alkaline batteries are designed to deliver a steady voltage throughout most of their lifespan. This consistency ensures that electronic devices function smoothly, with fewer sudden drops in performance as the battery discharges. From toys and remote controls to medical thermometers and wireless keyboards, devices powered by alkaline batteries benefit from reliable and predictable operation. Alkaline batteries also perform well across a broad temperature range, making them suitable for both indoor use and outdoor conditions.

Rechargeable Alkaline Options

For environmentally conscious looking to reduce long-term costs, rechargeable alkaline batteries offer a sustainable alternative. These batteries can be recharged up to 100 times when used and maintained properly. They are best suited for low- to moderate-drain applications, such as wall clocks, remote controls, and LED lights. While not as long-lasting or robust as NiMH (Nickel-Metal Hydride) rechargeable batteries, RAMs provide a more eco-friendly option that still fits standard alkaline battery formats. It's important to use the correct charger specifically designed for RAMs to ensure safety and maximize lifespan.

Cost-Effective

Affordability is a major factor in the widespread use of alkaline batteries. They are widely available in stores and online, and they come in a variety of pack sizes. Their long shelf life, strong performance, and low maintenance needs make them a practical and economical choice for many applications. For low- to mid-drain devices that don’t require frequent battery changes, alkaline batteries often provide better long-term value than some rechargeable alternatives, especially when immediate or plug-free power is needed.

Disadvantages of Alkaline Batteries

Struggle with High-Drain Devices

Alkaline batteries don’t do well in devices that need a lot of power at once. Their internal resistance increases as they’re used, making it harder for current to flow. In high-drain electronics like digital cameras or power tools, this can lead to short runtimes or sudden shutdowns. Even if the battery isn’t fully drained, the voltage might drop too low for the device to function.

Bulky for Some Uses

Alkaline batteries are larger than some newer battery types that offer the same or more energy. In compact gadgets like fitness trackers or hearing aids, their size becomes a problem. Others often choose lithium or custom rechargeable batteries when space and weight are needed.

Risk of Leakage

If left in devices too long, especially unused ones, alkaline batteries can leak. The potassium hydroxide inside is corrosive and can damage electronics. Leaks are more likely when mixing old and new batteries, storing them in hot places, or trying to recharge non-rechargeable ones. Although modern designs are better sealed, leaks still happen. Regularly checking battery compartments and removing old cells can help avoid damage.

Safety Concerns of Using Alkaline Batteries

Alkaline batteries are safe for most everyday uses. But they can be dangerous if used the wrong way or kept in bad conditions, like in very hot places. Knowing the risks can help you stay safe and protect your devices.

Risk of Exploding

A serious danger is trying to recharge normal alkaline batteries. These batteries are not made to be recharged. When you try, gas builds up inside the battery. If too much gas builds up, the battery can burst or explode, which can hurt you or break your device. Leaving batteries in hot places, like inside a car on a sunny day, can also make them explode. Heat makes the battery work harder inside, building up gas and pressure. Devices with small or tight battery spaces are more at risk because heat can’t escape easily. To stay safe never try to recharge batteries that are not marked "rechargeable" and do not leave batteries in hot places like cars or near heaters.

Leaking Chemicals

Old or damaged batteries can leak a white or yellowish powder or liquid. This is a dangerous chemical that can damage your devices by eating away at the metal parts. It can also hurt your skin, eyes, or lungs if you touch it or breathe it in.

To lower the risk of battery leaks, do not mix old and new batteries or different brands of batteries, as this can cause them to leak more easily. Always store batteries in a cool, dry place, and remember to take them out of devices you won’t be using for a long time. If a battery leaks at work or at home, be careful when cleaning it up. Wear gloves to protect your skin, wash your hands after touching the battery, and follow any safety rules your workplace has for dealing with battery leaks.

How Alkaline Batteries Compare to Other Types?

Alkaline Batteries are cheap and easy to find, perfect for low-power devices you don’t use often. However, they are single-use and create waste when thrown away. Lithium Batteries work well in high-drain devices and extreme temperatures. They last longer but cost more and can’t be recharged. NiMH Rechargeable Batteries cost more at first but can be used many times, saving money and reducing waste. Low self-discharge models are best if you don’t use them right away.

Feature
Alkaline Batteries
Lithium Batteries
NiMH Batteries
Cell Voltage
1.5V
1.5V to 1.8V
1.2V
Rechargeable
No
No
Yes (500 to 1,000 recharges)
Capacity (AA Size)
Around 2,500 mAh
Around 3,000 mAh
1,300 mAh to 2,800 mAh
Shelf Life
5–10 years with proper storage
10–15 years, very stable
3–5 years, but low self-discharge types last much longer
Self-Discharge Rate
Very low (under 0.3% per month)
Low (1.5–2% per month)
High (20–30% per month standard, 1–2% for low self-discharge models)
Best Suited For
Low-power devices like clocks, remotes, and toys
High-drain gadgets like cameras, GPS units, and outdoor sensors
High-drain, reusable applications like flashlights, controllers, and toys
Cost Per Battery (AA Size)
Low, typically around $0.50
Higher, often $2.00 or more
Higher upfront (~$2.50+), but cost-effective over time due to reusability
Cold Weather Performance
Poor to moderate; capacity drops significantly
Excellent performance in both extreme cold and heat
Moderate; capacity declines in cold temperatures
Environmental Impact
Low toxicity, safe for regular disposal
Requires special recycling due to material content
Eco-friendly, rechargeable, and recyclable
Reusability
Single-use only
Single-use only
Highly reusable, cutting down on waste

How to Extend the Life of Alkaline Batteries?

Alkaline batteries are a convenient power source for countless household devices, but many people don’t realize that a few simple habits can extend their performance and lifespan.

• Proper Storage: First, store your batteries in a cool, dry place, preferably in temperatures between 50°F and 77°F (10°C to 25°C). Extreme heat or cold can degrade the chemical components inside the battery, reducing both shelf life and performance. Avoid storing them in places like car trunks, garages, or next to heating vents, as fluctuating temperatures and humidity can accelerate their deterioration.

• Keep Them Sealed Until You Need Them: Whenever possible, keep batteries in their original packaging until you are ready to use them. Packaging helps protect the terminals from contact with metal objects or other batteries, which can cause accidental discharge or short-circuiting. If you remove them from the package early, make sure they are stored in a container that keeps the terminals separated and protected.

• Match Brands and Charge Levels: When powering a device that requires multiple batteries, always use batteries of the same brand, type, and similar charge level. Mixing old and new batteries, or different brands with slightly different chemical compositions, can result in uneven power draw. This imbalance often causes the weaker batteries to drain faster, increasing the risk of leakage or rupture that could damage your device.

• Remove Batteries When Not in Use: If you know you won’t be using a device for an extended period such as a flashlight in summer or holiday decorations after the season ends, remove the batteries and store them separately. Leaving batteries inside idle devices increases the risk of slow discharge or corrosion over time, which can shorten their life and potentially ruin your electronics.

• Use the Right Charger for Rechargeable Alkaline Batteries: Rechargeable alkaline batteries are an eco-friendly alternative to disposable ones, but they require special care. Only use chargers specifically designed for rechargeable alkaline batteries. Using the wrong charger can overheat the battery or fail to restore proper charge, ultimately shortening its lifespan or posing a safety risk.

• Recycle Used Batteries Responsibly: Finally, extending battery life isn’t just about usage, it’s also about responsible disposal. Once your alkaline batteries are depleted, take them to a recycling facility or a local collection program. Recycling helps recover valuable materials such as zinc and steel, reducing the environmental impact and keeping harmful chemicals out of landfills.

Conclusion

Alkaline batteries are a simple and low-cost choice for many everyday devices. They come in different sizes and work well for things you don’t use all the time. They last a long time on the shelf and are easy to find in stores. But they are not the best for devices that use a lot of power, and they can leak if left inside gadgets for too long. Storing them the right way and taking them out when not in use helps them last longer. Whether you pick regular or rechargeable alkaline batteries, knowing how to use and care for them helps you get the best performance while keeping your devices safe.

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